Evidence points to the important role of identity in transition

Identity is central to how we understand ourselves and our place in the world. Among those who serve in the Armed Forces, this sense of self is often strongly linked to the unique factors of Service life [1]. Values of stoicism and importance of work are widely acknowledged to be defining features of military Service, along with a strong sense of camaraderie, loyalty, and serving a higher purpose. Taken together, these elements have the potential to give rise to forms of military identity that are distinct from civilians [2, 3].

Leaving Service and transitioning back to civilian life therefore not only involves a change in life circumstances but also a shift in identity. While many navigate to a new civilian identity, or craft an identity that incorporates elements of their military and civilian lives, others may struggle to assimilate their identity post-Service, with potential detrimental effects for overall transition [4]. Understanding the role of identity in transition is therefore important.

This news feature provides an overview of existing evidence about identity in the context of joining and serving in the Armed Forces and the important role it plays in transitioning back to civilian life. With an ever-growing body of evidence demonstrating the significance of identity in military-to-civilian transition, potential recommendations for service provision that aim to support identity transition among United Kingdom (UK) ex-Service personnel are presented, and priorities for future research highlighted.  

Identity formation and evolution in the military

For many Service personnel, development of their military identity begins upon initial entry into the Armed Forces. Basic training plays a key role in this process, during which incoming Service personnel – many of whom are also entering adulthood – are exposed to the military’s collective values of working towards a higher purpose, selfless service, loyalty, and camaraderie [2, 3, 5]. The structured timetable and environment of the Armed Forces have been identified as fostering a strong sense of belonging, reinforcing an individual’s collective identity within their assigned team or unit [2, 3, 5].

Although entry into the Armed Forces marks the first step in many individuals’ development of a military identity, research indicates that those who grew up in Service families or participated in cadet units may feel they have military associations and traits prior to joining [1]. These early forms of military identity may draw them to the Armed Forces and in turn work as further centralising and strengthening factors in the development of their unique sense of self [1].

An individual’s military identity continues to evolve throughout their time in Service [6]. As their careers progress, members of the Armed Forces develop an affiliation with military Service through their appearance, values, language use, and behaviour. Key elements of being in the Armed Forces such as wearing a uniform, deployment, promotion, and specialised training lead to the daily demonstration and strengthening of shared values among recruits [6, 7]. In so doing, membership in the Armed Forces may create a sense of belonging and purpose greater than previous civilian beliefs and identities [6, 7].

While this evolution in identity is important and perhaps essential for military cohesion and operational effectiveness, many Armed Forces values are different than the more individual focus of civilian life. The strong and unified group focus of military life can therefore lead to the development of ‘in-group’ and ‘out-group’ thinking among Service personnel, in which members of the military (the ‘in-group’) think of themselves as separate or distinct from civilians (the ‘out group’). This can become problematic if Service personnel see themselves as superior to civilians, with research suggesting that such views have the potential to complicate transition into civilian life by putting strain on existing relationships and making the development of new social networks harder [8, 9].

Identity change and challenge leaving the military

While varying from person to person, an individual’s military identity will undergo further change when their Armed Forces career comes to an end [10, 11]. Although research suggests that most Service leavers experience little or no major issues in coming to terms with their new civilian identities, some find this experience to be problematic and challenging for their transition [12, 13]. This can include a perceived loss of status, feeling unprepared for civilian life, as well as a sense of being abandoned by the military [13, 14, 15]. Such feelings can in turn impact a person’s mental health, social connectedness, and civilian employment [13, 14, 15].

One factor that has been identified as potentially challenging for a person’s adjustment to post-Service life is the continuing importance of military identity [13, 16]. For example, a study of 35 ex-Service personnel in the United States (US) found that those whose self-esteem and self-image were particularly tied to their military career had a less successful transition than those who felt weaker associations with the Armed Forces. This research also found that ex-Service personnel who had previously envisioned completing a full military career but then did not, similarly encountered issues in preparing for post-Service social life. Moreover, they reported feelings of surprise or unpreparedness with respect to civilian life as well as challenges envisioning what a successful post-Service career would be like[17].   

A continued strong personal affiliation with the Armed Forces may also make it harder for ex-Service personnel to come to terms with their new civilian status and loss of their previous military identity[18].  As noted above, this may stem in part from the continuation of in-group/out-group thinking among transitioning personnel and associated challenges in accepting that they no longer belong to the unique environment of the military. Experiencing this sense of loss can result in a negative self-image and life outlook for some, as well as difficulties in maintaining friendships and connections due to feelings of isolation from both the civilian and the military community [17, 19]. For example, research with a UK cohort found that the maintenance of a strong military identity post service can lead to difficulties creating and maintaining relationships with civilians and thus limit access to social support from new civilian social networks [16].

Assimilating to a post-service identity can be further complicated if ex-Service personnel experience an unplanned exit from the military (i.e., following injury) [20, 21]. In addition to the practical and physical demands of this type of departure, research indicates that those who leave the Armed Forces unexpectedly may experience ‘identity disruption’, in which their sense of self is suddenly called into question and must be reevaluated [9]. While most ex-Service personnel can successfully overcome this, evidence suggests that for some it can give rise to challenges relating to self-image and life satisfaction, along with more severe psychological challenges [9,12,22]. A study with US and Australian ex-Service personnel found that identity disruption and a lost sense of self was particularly strong for ex-Service personnel with negative discharge experiences who felt a sense of betrayal from the military institution. Feelings of ‘institutional’ betrayal and identity loss were in turn found to increase vulnerability to mental health and well-being challenges [23]. It is therefore not just in-Service experiences that affect identity and its impact on other aspects of well-being during military-to-civilian transition, but also the way Service personnel leave the Armed Forces [17, 19, 24].

Pre-Service experiences can also affect transition outcomes [24, 25]. A UK study found that among mental health treatment seeking ex-Service personnel who reported high levels of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), the potential loss of identity and self-esteem during transition may be exacerbated by pre-existing vulnerabilities associated with their ACEs, with potential negative effects on transition success [24]. Those who continued to see the military as family after Service were more likely to experience symptoms of depression or post-traumatic stress disorder [24, 25]. Having a strong sense of self that was connected to the military, meant many felt they had to start their life over, but experienced a dissonance as they felt fundamentally different from ‘civilians’ which made them less willing to disconnect from their military identity [24]. These challenges have been attributed to both the logistical demands of post-Service life (e.g., sourcing new employment, accommodation, and social relationships) but also reflect difficulties in coming to terms with no longer having access to the support and sense of purpose provided by the family environment of the military [24, 25]. These findings highlight the importance of accessing sufficient in-Service support and guidance before and during transition that focuses on preparation for the impact on identity and potential perceived loss of a military family, especially for those with pre-Service vulnerabilities.

Civilian employment experiences may be a specific place where the differences between military and civilian culture and norms are most apparent with the potential to create identity-based transition challenges [26, 27]. For example, a US study found that holding onto military identity and cultural norms in the civilian workplace, such as military communication styles characterised by the use of acronyms and direct language, and the expectation of strong group uniformity, in contrast to the individualism and autonomy of civilian work environments, can lead to ex-Service personnel feeling misunderstood, invalidated, and believing their civilian colleagues lack discipline and are lazy. These communication and cultural mismatches can create barriers for ex-Service personnel as they experience difficulties in forming working relationships with civilians, feeling alienated and that they cannot find work that ‘fits’ well for them [26]. The successful assimilation of military and civilian identities may also play an important role in ex-Service personnel’s long term employment outcomes. Recent UK research found that those able to successfully assimilate their civilian identities had more consistent and satisfactory long term employment outcomes compared to those who could not. [27] Finding and maintaining employment necessitated not only coming to terms with ones post-Service identity, but a process of increasing overall knowledge about the general needs and functioning of the civilian working world [27].

Ex-Servicewomen may experience unique barriers in assimilating a new post-Service identity [28].  A study of 17 female Service personnel from the US who served in Afghanistan, Iraq, or both, found that women encountered additional obstacles compared to their male counterparts when moving from the status of ‘military’ to ‘civilian’. In particular, the highly masculine environment fostered by the military was found as having given limited opportunity for the participants to express their femininity as Servicewomen. This, in turn, was suggested as having significant implications for their identity upon transition, requiring the participants to not only consider their newfound status as a ‘civilian’ but also what it means to be a woman outside the hyper-masculine context of the Armed Forces [29, 30].

Implications of current evidence for transition support and future research

In 2024, roughly 15,000 Service personnel left the UK Armed Forces [31]. While the majority of those will have a successful entry into post-Service life, all will undergo some form of identity transition. Understanding how to best support those leaving the Armed Forces – not only with securing post-Service employment or accommodation but also building a new sense of self – is vital.

Despite a growing body of evidence of the important role of identity in transition, support that directly addresses this process is currently limited in the UK. At the time of writing, there are limited identity-focused programmes for those leaving the Armed Forces. While the Ministry of Defence (MoD) Service Leavers' Guide and initiatives such as the Career Transition Partnership (CTP) aim to help Service leavers develop skills and find employment, they do not include modules that directly address how experiences of transition can challenge and change a Service person’s identity, or how they might navigate those changes [32, 33].

Providing services, guidance, and mentorship that help Service personnel to negotiate the logistical demands of civilian life (e.g., finding employment, securing appropriate accommodation) is critical to promoting positive transition [23, 34]. Nevertheless, there is growing recognition of the need to extend this support to include preparation for transition experiences and challenges related to identity. The Transition Assistance Program (TAP) provided by the Department of Defence for US Service personnel offers an example of such assistance. TAP offers tailored guidance on issues such as loss of purpose and identity during military-to-civilian transition, including developing appropriate coping mechanisms and social support networks [35].

The UK MoD could consider incorporating similar guidance into existing CTP and resettlement support. Though due to differences across the UK and the US, research should be conducted to assess the relevance of the US program and how to adapt it to be suitable for UK service leavers.

Additionally, new research should aim to better understand the role of a continued and internalised military identity on post-Service transition experiences such as employment, community integration, social connectedness, and loneliness. Moreover, additional research should seek to understand factors influencing the degree to which individuals maintain an internalised military identity versus assimilate post-Service identities. Evidence from such research could help inform targeted identity support for those who may require it the most.  

Future research should also consider whether and how Service affiliation can impact an individual’s identity and post-Service transition. To date, most studies have included participants from the Army with limited representation from Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, or Royal Marines personnel. While they share cultural similarities, each branch of the Armed Forces is unique and may create distinct forms of identity [36]. Undertaking further research on identity formation and transition across the Services can help to identify potential differences and, in so doing, provide a basis for tailoring support services.

The changing nature of the UK armed forces and how personnel relate to Service should also be considered [37]. For example, the 2023 Haythornthwaite review found that the UK military was overall younger than it had been historically, with an increasing number of personnel leaving voluntarily earlier rather than serving a full career to retirement. Further, there was an overall decrease in satisfaction with Service and an increasing view of Service as a step for further career progression outside of the forces [37]. These changing attitudes and ways in which forces life has potentially shifted from historic trends should be explored for their potential impact on both in service identity formation and how that then translates to post service identity transition.

Finally, there is a need to consider the intersection of military identity with other identities such as gender, race, and sexual orientation, which are likely to play a significant role in post-Service identity assimilation [28, 29, 30, 38]. 

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